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Plato: Phaedrus · 31 of 38 · tr. Benjamin Jowett

Section 1

I quite admit, Socrates, that the art of rhetoric which these men teach and of which they write is such as you describe-there I agree with you. But I still want to know where and how the true art of rhetoric and persuasion is to be acquired. Soc. The perfection which is required of the finished orator is, or rather must be, like the perfection of anything else; partly given by nature, but may also be assisted by art. If you have the natural power and add to it knowledge and practice, you will be a distinguished speaker; if you fall short in either of these, you will be to that extent defective. But the art, as far as there is an art, of rhetoric does not lie in the direction of Lysias or Thrasymachus. Phaedr. In what direction then? Soc. I conceive Pericles to have been the most accomplished of rhetoricians. Phaedr. What of that? Soc. All the great arts require discussion and high speculation about the truths of nature; hence come loftiness of thought and completeness of execution. And this, as I conceive, was the quality which, in addition to his natural gifts, Pericles acquired from his intercourse with Anaxagoras whom he happened to know. He was thus imbued with the higher philosophy, and attained the knowledge of Mind and the negative of Mind, which were favourite themes of Anaxagoras, and applied what suited his purpose to the art of speaking. Phaedr. Explain. Soc. Rhetoric is like medicine. Phaedr. How so? Soc. Why, because medicine has to define the nature of the body and rhetoric of the soul-if we would proceed, not empirically but scientifically, in the one case to impart health and strength by giving medicine and food in the other to implant the conviction or virtue which you desire, by the right application of words and training. Phaedr. There, Socrates, I suspect that you are right. Soc. And do you think that you can know the nature of the soul intelligently without knowing the nature of the whole? Phaedr. Hippocrates the Asclepiad says that the nature even of the body can only be understood as a whole. Soc. Yes, friend, and he was right:-still, we ought not to be content with the name of Hippocrates, but to examine and see whether his argument agrees with his conception of nature. Phaedr. I agree. Soc. Then consider what truth as well as Hippocrates says about this or about any other nature. Ought we not to consider first whether that which we wish to learn and to teach is a simple or multiform thing, and if simple, then to enquire what power it has of acting or being acted upon in relation to other things, and if multiform, then to number the forms; and see first in the case of one of them, and then in. case of all of them, what is that power of acting or being acted upon which makes each and all of them to be what they are? Phaedr. You may very likely be right, Socrates. Soc. The method which proceeds without analysis is like the groping of a blind man. Yet, surely, he who is an artist ought not to admit of a comparison with the blind, or deaf. The rhetorician, who teaches his pupil to speak scientifically, will particularly set forth the nature of that being to which he addresses his speeches; and this, I conceive, to be the soul. Phaedr. Certainly. Soc. His whole effort is directed to the soul; for in that he seeks to produce conviction. Phaedr. Yes. Soc.
Themes
◆Active Contemplationpraxis

A form of meditation that uses imagery, imagination, or symbolic thought rather than purely empty stillness.

The passage emphasizes 'high speculation about the truths of nature' as a method for acquiring rhetorical perfection.

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◆Apophatic Theologytheology

Describing the divine only by negation—God transcends all positive categories and concepts; the via negativa.

Pericles is described as knowing 'the negative of Mind,' indicating a use of negation in understanding the divine.

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◆Body As Obstacleanthropology

The material body viewed as a prison, tomb, or source of error that hinders spiritual knowledge and return.

The text explicitly compares rhetoric to medicine, stating that the art is directed to the soul rather than the body.

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◆Cosmic Dualismtheology

Ontological opposition between two primal principles (light/darkness, truth/lie, spirit/matter) as the fundamental structure of reality.

The distinction between the body and the soul implies an ontological opposition between material and spiritual realms.

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◆Divine Hiddennesstheology

The supreme God's radical concealment beyond ordinary knowledge or perception; the Hidden Father.

The text states that 'the nature of the soul can only be understood as a whole,' implying a hidden or complex reality beyond simple perception.

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◆Evil As Privationtheology

Augustinian and Plotinian doctrine that evil has no positive being of its own but is a lack, distortion, or absence of the good — denying ontological dualism while preserving moral seriousness.

Deficiency in knowledge or power is described as making the speaker 'to that extent defective,' aligning with the view that lack of good constitutes evil.

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◆Gnosis Direct Knowledgesoteriology

Salvation through direct experiential knowledge of the divine nature, not through faith, ritual, or moral works alone.

The passage advocates for acquiring knowledge and practice to become a distinguished speaker rather than relying on empirical methods alone.

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◆Inner Lightanthropology

The divine spark or luminous quality residing within the human person, potentially recognisable through introspection.

The text describes Pericles being 'imbued with the higher philosophy' and possessing a 'knowledge of Mind,' implying an internal divine quality.

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◆Kingdom Withinanthropology

The claim that the divine realm is present inside the individual, accessible without external mediation.

The focus on understanding the nature of the soul as the primary target for persuasion suggests the divine realm is accessible internally.

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◆Ladder Of Lovesoteriology

Diotima's staged ascent from love of beautiful bodies → beautiful souls → beautiful pursuits → beautiful knowledge → Beauty itself; the canonical scala amoris that grounds Plotinus's On the Beautiful and Bruno's Eroici Furori — distinct from generic spiritual_ascent in that eros is the specific motive force.

The passage describes a method of ascent through 'high speculation about the truths of nature' to achieve perfection in rhetoric.

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◆Mystical Unionsoteriology

The merging of the individual soul or self with the divine, transcending personal identity.

Pericles is described as being imbued with the higher philosophy and knowledge of Mind, suggesting a union with divine wisdom.

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◆Paradox As Teachingethics

Using apparent contradiction, reversal, or riddle to destabilise ordinary understanding and induce insight.

The comparison of rhetoric to medicine uses an unexpected analogy to convey the truth about the soul's nature.

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◆Self Knowledgesoteriology

The recognition of one's own true divine nature as the primary path to liberation; 'know thyself' as soteriology.

The passage explicitly states that 'the art of rhetoric... does not lie in the direction of Lysias or Thrasymachus' but requires knowing the nature of the soul.

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◆Spiritual Ascentpraxis

A staged journey of the soul upward through heavenly realms or levels of being toward the divine source.

The text outlines a method of acquiring perfection through knowledge and practice that leads to loftiness of thought.

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◆Unity Of Beingtheology

The doctrine that all existence is ultimately one substance or one divine reality; non-duality as a theological claim.

The instruction to examine the nature of things as a whole implies an underlying unity in existence.

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